Advancing Faster than Male: Female Achievement and Employment Outcomes in Bangladesh
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18485/fb_ijcss.2025.1.2.3Keywords:
gender equity, rural-urban disparities, feminist development studiesAbstract
This study examines Bangladesh’s paradoxical gender progress, where women’s gains in education (50.8% pre-primary enrollment, female-dominated tertiary ratios) and employment (42.7% labor force participation) contrast with persistent rural-urban divides in technology access and leadership representation. National datasets from 2000 to 2023 are analyzed, revealing that while urban women benefit from digital and educational investments, rural women face infrastructural barriers despite high female employment in sectors such as garments. Linear empowerment narratives are challenged by findings highlighting male disengagement (35.2% NEET rates) alongside women’s visibility. Reforms prioritizing rural digital equity and gender-balanced vocational training are recommended to translate participation into substantive power.
Downloads
References
1. Afrin, S., Hoque, M. S., & Akter, B. (2024). Women’s leadership development through entrepreneurship in Bangladesh. Management and Labour Studies, 49(2), 208–240. doi:10.1177/0258042X231208591
2. Ahmed, M. M. (2021). Inequality of opportunity in education and sustainable development: The case of Bangladesh. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 19(4), 13–32. doi:10.9734/ajess/2021/v19i430471
3. Ahmed, R., & Hyndman-Rizk, N. (2020). The higher education paradox: Towards improving women’s empowerment, agency development and labour force participation in Bangladesh. Gender and Education, 32(4), 447–465. doi:10.1080/09540253.2018.1471452
4. Al Chal, S. (2022). Code-switching in the TEFL undergraduate classroom (Doctoral dissertation). Lebanese American University. doi:10.26756/th.2022.422
5. Ara, F., & Northcote, J. (2020). Women’s participation in Bangladesh politics, the gender wall and quotas. South Asia Research, 40(2), 266–281. doi:10.1177/0262728020915562
6. Arafat, A., Ahmad, N. A., & Salleh Ismail, S. F. (2021). Socio-cultural gender norms and economic barriers in the context of rural high school girls’ dropout in Bangladesh: A qualitative study. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 6(8), 436–447. doi:10.47405/mjssh.v6i8.962
7. Bai, A., Vahedian, M., Hessari, H., Bai, M., Ghahreman, R., & Piri, H. (2024). Digital empowerment: Transformation of women’s body display norms in the age of social media. Formosa Journal of Science and Technology, 3(8), 1935–1954. doi:10.55927/fjst.v3i8.10862
8. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2023). Report on labour force survey (LFS) 2022. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Retrieved April 22, 2025, from http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/3a849242-7e9c-4e52-9b36-373ddb8b8d8c/Labour-Force-Survey
9. Bangladesh Ministry of Education. (2023). Annual primary school census 2022. Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. Retrieved April 22, 2025, from http://www.mopme.gov.bd
10. Butler, J. (2017). The force of nonviolence: An ethico-political bind. London, England: Verso.
11. Cvetković, V., Čvorović, M., & Beriša, H. (2023a). The Gender Dimension of Vulnerability in Disaster Caused by the Corona Virus (Covid-19). NBP, 28(2), 32-54.
12. Cvetković, V., Roder, G., Öcal, A., Tarolli, P., & Dragićević, S. (2018). The role of gender in preparedness and response behaviors towards flood risk in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 2761.
13. Dada, K. S. J., Mohammed, H. A., & Quadir, R. O. (2025). Disaster risk management in academic institutions: An assessment of preparedness and recovery at Kashim Ibrahim Library, Nigeria. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 1–15.
14. Dhar, S. (2024). Critical analysis of globalization’s effect on women’s empowerment in Bangladesh. Journal of Women Empowerment and Studies, 4(4), 12–24. doi:10.55529/jwes.44.12.24
15. Emon, M. H., & Nipa, M. N. (2024). Exploring the gender dimension in entrepreneurship development: A systematic literature review in the context of Bangladesh. Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research, 8(1), 34–49. doi:10.47670/wuwijar202481mhemnn
16. Garba, T. M., & Akaan, R. (2025). The Socioeconomic and Psychological Implications of Polygamy: A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis Concerning Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) in Nigeria. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 25–34.
17. Golsch, K., & Seegers, M. (2020). Perceptions of technological change at work through a gender lens. Gender a výzkum / Gender and Research, 21(2), 32–58. doi:10.13060/gav.2020.002
18. Hossain, M. S., Islam, M. A., Hosen, M., & Thaker, H. M. T. (2023). Missing catalysts of female entrepreneurship success: Evidence from an emerging economy. Global Business and Organisational Excellence, 42(5), 50–64. doi:10.1002/joe.22201
19. International Telecommunication Union. (2021). Digital gender gap report 2021. Geneva, Switzerland: ITU Publications.
20. Janković, L., Cvetković, V. M., Gačić, J., Renner, R., & Jakovljević, V. (2025). Integrating psychosocial support into emergency and disaster management and public safety: The role of the Red Cross of Serbia. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 99–124.
21. Jubaer, S. M. O. F., Joly, J. A., Devi, A. D., & Shovon, A. I. (2021). Work participation of females and emerging labour circumstances in Bangladesh. European Journal of Humanities and Educational Advancements, 2(5), 1–11.
22. Karmaker, R., & Lemon, M. (2024). Female students, dropping out of education. Indonesian Journal of Multidiciplinary Research, 4(1), 77–88. doi:10.17509/ijomr.v4i1.67213
23. Karmaker, R., & Rahman, R. (2023). Female having education in the world of technology wading obstacle facing religious and social barrier. ASEAN Journal of Religion, Education, and Society, 3(1), 23–36. Retrieved from https://ejournal.bumipublikasinusantara.id/index.php/ajores/article/view/459
24. Khandker, S. R., Samad, H. A., Fuwa, N., & Hayashi, R. (2021). The female secondary stipend and assistance programme in Bangladesh: What did it accomplish? World Bank Group. doi:10.22617/WPS210021-2
25. Khatun, F., Nawrin, N., Mahbub, A., & Islam, M. B. (2024). Equity for the women in workplace in Bangladesh: An exploratory study. In Empowering and advancing women leaders and entrepreneurs (pp. 195–230). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-7107-7.ch010
26. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Norris, L., & Donohue, J. (2023). Mobile learning and higher education: Challenges in context. New York, NY: Routledge.
27. Lina, N. A. (2023). The growth of women’s education in Bangladesh. American Journal of Education and Technology, 2(3), 40–50. doi:10.54536/ajet.v2i3.1276
28. Mamun, A. (2024). An analysis of wage determinants and gender wage inequality in the daily labour market of Bangladesh: A quantile regression approach. Arab Economic and Business Journal, 16(2), 4. doi:10.38039/2214-4625.1046
29. Mančić, T. (2025). Climate change as a security challenge, risk and threat of the 21st century and its consequences on critical infrastructure. International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, 1(1), 191–204.
30. Mimi, A., Imran, M. A., Mustafa, J., Beg, T. H., & Rahman, M. S. (2022). Efforts by women to become financially independent through e-commerce during Covid-19: A study on Bangladesh perspective. American Economic and Social Review, 9(1), 9–16. doi:10.46281/aesr.v9i1.1723
31. Ministry of Women and Children Affairs. (n.d.). National women development policy. Government of Bangladesh. Retrieved April 22, 2025, from [URL not provided]
32. Morshed, O. (2023). From inequality to diversity: Perceptions of Bangladeshi grassroots level feminists on gender in education (Master’s thesis). University of Oulu. Retrieved from https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:oulu-202306152557
33. Mou, S. N. (2024). Women’s empowerment through higher education and employment in Bangladesh. Journal of Gender, Culture and Society, 4(2), 39–66. doi:10.32996/jgcs.2024.4.2.6
34. Naher, H., Tanim, T., & Sultana, N. (2019). Women in science and technology: A study in Bangladesh. Sociology and Anthropology, 7(7), 306–312. doi:10.13189/sa.2019.070702
35. Nawar, S., Zaman, M., Zahir, T. B., Khan, M. S. R., & Shariar, M. S. (2024). The future of social media entrepreneurship in business for women entrepreneurs. In Cases on social media and entrepreneurship (pp. 228–245). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-1781-5.ch014
36. Nazrul, N. (2024). Gendered deification: Women leaders and political iconography in Bangladesh. International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 2(1), 43–55.
37. Nazrul, N., Majumder, T., & Karki, S. (2024). Economic resilience and gender empowerment: A post-pandemic analysis of Bangladesh’s ready-made garment sector. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 1(3), 55–70. doi:10.62951/ijss.v1i3.55
38. Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human development approach. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
39. Peláez Sánchez, I. C., George Reyes, C. E., & Glasserman Morales, L. D. (2024). Gender digital divide: The complexity of digital media literacy among high school students with professional technical training in Mexico. IAFOR Journal of Education, 12(1), 57–76. doi:10.22492/issn.2186-5892.2024.41
40. Prodip, M. A. (2021). Exclusion through inclusion: Institutional constraints on women’s political empowerment in India and Bangladesh. World Affairs, 184(2), 213–244. doi:10.1177/00438200211013017
41. Rahman, M. S., & Rahman, M. M. (2023). Influencing factors for the female students in the persistence of higher education: An investigation in the context of Bangladesh. International Journal of Research and Publications, 2582, 7421.
42. Safari, P., Prakoso, B., & Supandi, E. (2024). Gender differences in perceptions of digital device use and reading literacy: Insights from PISA 2018. IAFOR Journal of Education, 12(2), 103–118. doi:10.22492/issn.2186-5892.2024.41
43. Sen, A. (2009). The idea of justice. London, England: Penguin Books.
44. Streatfield, A. J., Rahman, M. M., Khan, S., Haider, M. M., Rahman, M., Nahar, Q., & Jamil, K. (2023). What shapes attitudes on gender roles among adolescents in Bangladesh. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1121858. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1121858
45. UN Women, & UN DESA. (2023). Progress on the sustainable development goals: The gender snapshot 2023. United Nations. Retrieved April 22, 2025, from https://bit.ly/gender-snapshot-2023
46. United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Youth employment and skills study (YESS): Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-02/Youth%20Entrepreneurship%20in%20Bangladesh_Final%20Updated_151122.pdf
47. Vooren, M., Haelermans, C., Groot, W., & van den Brink, H. M. (2022). Comparing success of female students to their male counterparts in the STEM fields: An empirical analysis from enrollment until graduation using longitudinal register data. International Journal of STEM Education, 9, 1–17. doi:10.1186/s40594-021
48. World Bank. (2023). 2023 annual report: UFGE umbrella facility for gender equality—Accelerate gender equality for impact. Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099108512192312732/pdf/IDU1a6f1e873149a71446e19ec11b24376209e43.pdf
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Ritesh Karmaker (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
By submitting a manuscript to the International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies, authors acknowledge and agree to the following copyright terms and conditions:
-
Author Rights and Ownership
- Authors retain the copyright to their submitted work. However, by submitting their manuscript, authors grant the International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies a non-exclusive right to publish, distribute, and archive the work in any format (print, digital, or electronic).
- Authors are free to share, reproduce, and distribute their published work, provided proper credit is given to the original publication in this journal.
-
Licensing and Open Access Policy
- The journal publishes under the [insert applicable license, e.g., Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY)], which allows others to share and adapt the work with appropriate attribution.
- Authors are responsible for ensuring that their submission complies with the journal's licensing terms and does not violate any third-party rights.
-
Originality and Permissions
- The submitted work must be original and not previously published or under consideration elsewhere.
- If the manuscript includes copyrighted materials (e.g., figures, tables, excerpts), authors must obtain the necessary permissions for reproduction and provide appropriate attribution.
-
Author Warranties
- By submitting, authors confirm that their work does not infringe on any intellectual property rights, is free from plagiarism, and adheres to ethical publishing standards.
- The journal is not responsible for any legal disputes arising from copyright infringement, misrepresentation, or unauthorized use of third-party materials.
-
Editorial and Publication Rights
- The International Journal of Contemporary Security Studies reserves the right to make editorial modifications to ensure clarity, consistency, and compliance with journal standards.
- If accepted, the manuscript will be published online and made publicly available according to the journal’s open-access policy.
By proceeding with submission, authors confirm that they have read and agreed to the terms outlined in this Copyright Notice.
